Forensic Science Timeline: Ancient Times to Modern History

Hungary becomes the first country in Europe to carry out research on the subject of lip prints. The examination started after lip traces had been found on a glass door at the scene of a murder. It was established later that the murderer pushed the door open with his head because his hands were covered in blood, leaving a trace of the red part of his lips on the glass. In the process of examination of the lip traces, their usefulness for criminalistic identification was proven.

C. Djerassi’s group publishes dozens of articles describing the mass spectral analysis of natural products, including tropane alkaloids and cannabinoids

• 1963: D.A. Hopkinson and colleagues first identified the polymorphic nature of erythrocyte acid phosphataseAcid phosphatase- an enzyme found in many tissues but is 500 to 1000 times more active in human semen than any other body fluid. May be used forensically as an indicator for the presence of semen. Read Full Definition (EAP).
• 1964: N. Spencer and colleagues first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell phosphoglucomutase (PGM).
• 1966: R. A. Fildes and H. Harris first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell adenylate cyclase (AK).
• 1968: Spencer and colleagues first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell adenosine deaminase (ADA).

• Brian J. Culliford and Brian Wraxall developed the immunoelectrophoretic technique for haptoglobin typing in bloodstains.
• Culliford initiated the development of gel-based methods to test for isoenzymes in dried bloodstains in1967. He is also instrumental in developing and disseminating methods for testing proteins and isoenzymes in blood and other body fluids and secretions.

FBI established the National Crime Information Center, a computerized national filing system on wanted people, stolen vehicles, weapons, etc.

Culliford of the British Metropolitan Police Laboratory initiated the development of gel-based methods to test for isoenzymes in dried bloodstains. He was also instrumental in developing and disseminating methods for testing proteins and isoenzymes in both blood and other body fluids and secretions.

Spencer and colleagues first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell adenosine deaminase (ADA).

Culliford published The Examination and Typing of Bloodstains in the Crime Laboratory, generally accepted as responsible for disseminating reliable protocols for typing polymorphic protein and enzyme markers to the US and worldwide.

The American Academy of Forensic Sciences establishes the Physical Anthropology Section.

Canada’s Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) finished computerizing their fingerprint files.

J. E. Wessel, P. F. Jones, Q. Y. Kwan, R. S. Nesbitt, and E. J. Rattin at Aerospace Corporation in the US developed advanced technology to detect gunshot residue, link a suspect to a crime scene, and show how close that suspect was to the gun. The technology uses scanning electron microscopy with electron dispersive X-rays (SEMEDX).

In 1975, the FBI funded the development of fingerprint scanners for automated classifiers and minutiae extraction technology, which led to the development of a prototype reader. This early reader used capacitive techniques to collect the fingerprint minutiae. At that time, only the individual’s biographical dataInformation in analog or digital form that can be transmitted or processed. Read Full Definition, fingerprint classification data, and minutiae were stored because the cost of storage for the digital images of the fingerprintsFingerprint, impression made by the papillary ridges on the ends of the fingers and thumbs. Fingerprints afford an infallible means of personal identification, because the ridge arrangement on every finger of every human being is Read Full Definition was prohibitive.

The Federal Rules of EvidenceEvidence is any form of proof, such as objects, materials, or scientific findings, presented to establish or disprove a fact in a legal proceeding. It is used to reconstruct events and link or exclude individuals Read Full Definition, initially promulgated by the U.S. Supreme Court, were enacted as a congressional statute. They are based on the relevancy standard in which scientific evidence that is deemed more prejudicial than probativeProbative - possessing the potential to provide details that are valuable to an investigation. Read Full Definition may not be admitted.

J. A. Zoro and K. Hadley publish a review of the use of MS in forensic laboratories in the UK; includes Pyrolysis-MS (Py-MS)of polymers and GC-MS of drugs and ignitable liquids

• A limited computerized scanning mechanism was first used to develop a database in forensic scienceDiscover the fascinating field of Forensic Science, the application of scientific principles to legal matters. This post delves into its many disciplines, from DNA analysis to crime scene investigation, its importance in the justice system, Read Full Definition by the FBI’s Automated Fingerprint Identification SystemA.F.I.S. (Automated Fingerprint Identification System) is a sophisticated database and software solution that expedites fingerprint analysis and identification by comparing submitted fingerprints with a vast database of known fingerprints. Read Full Definition (AFIS).
• In Japan, investigators accidentally discover that superglue develops latent fingerprints. Fuseo Matsumur, a trace evidenceTrace evidence - Physical evidence that results from the transfer of small quantities of materials (e.g., hair, textile fibers, paint chips, glass fragments, gunshot residue particles). Read Full Definition examiner at the Saga Prefectural Crime Laboratory of the National Police Agency of Japan, notices his own fingerprints developing on microscope slides while mounting hairs from a taxi driver murder case. He relates the information to co-worker Masato Soba, a latent printLatent print - A fingerprint, palm print or footprint that is not readily visible under normal lighting. Read Full Definition examiner. Soba would be the first to develop latent prints intentionally by “Superglue” fuming later that year.

Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy is a powerful analytical tool for identifying chemical constituents and elucidating compoundIn scientific terminology, a "compound" refers to a substance formed by the combination of two or more different elements or molecules. These elements or molecules can be chemically bonded together to create a new substance Read Full Definition structures in various forms in real-world samples according to the vibrational modes of their molecular functional groups.

Britain’s Yorkshire Ripper case highlights the value of computers in investigating serial killings and leads to the development of “psychological profiling” techniques in the following decade.

Royal Canadian Mounted Police implemented the first automatic fingerprint identification system.

1979: Bite mark evidence is a key in convicting serial killer Theodore “Ted” Bundy.

William Bass establishes the Body Farm at the University of Tennessee in Knoxville. Bill Bass had been head of the Department of Anthropology for ten years when he built the Anthropology Research Facility, more popular as the Body Farm, with his graduate students. Bass’s work revolutionized forensic science, particularly for determining the time since a person’s death, and inspired several television dramas.

PCR was conceived by Kerry Mullis while working at Cetus Corporation. However, the first paper on the technique was not published until 1985.

Professor Alec Jefferies discovered that each human being has unique DNADNA, or Deoxyribonucleic Acid, is the genetic material found in cells, composed of a double helix structure. It serves as the genetic blueprint for all living organisms. Read Full Definition, except in the case of identical twins, and he developed the first DNA profilingDNA profiling, also known as DNA fingerprinting, is a significant technique in forensic science that identifies individual's unique DNA patterns for various purposes such as establishing familial relationships or tracing genealogical roots. The technique, which Read Full Definition test. It involved the detection of a multilocus RFLP pattern. He published his findings in Nature in 1985.

Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) passed. This piece of legislation governs the handling of suspects and prisoners.

• The human genetics group at Cetus Corporation, led by Henry Erlich, developed the PCR technique for several clinical and forensic applications. This resulted in the development of the first commercial PCR typing kit specifically for forensic use, HLA DQα (DQA1), about two years later.
• In People v. Pestinikas, Edward Blake first used PCR-based DNA testing (HLA DQα) to confirm different autopsyAn autopsy, also known as a post-mortem examination or necropsy (when performed on animals), is a thorough and systematic medical procedure that involves the examination of a deceased person's body, typically to determine or confirm Read Full Definition samples to be from the same person. A civil court accepted the evidence. This was also the first use of any DNA testing in the United States.

• In England, Colin Pitchfork became the first criminal identified by using DNA in a double homicide of two young girls in the England Midlands. Significantly, DNA was first used to exonerate an innocent suspect in the same investigation.
• DNA profiling is introduced for the first time in a U.S. criminal court. Lifecodes performed the same DNA profiling techniques (RFLP) in the conviction of Tommy Lee Andrews for a series of sexual assaults three months later in Florida, US. The first United States use of DNA for a conviction.
• Also, in the UK, Robert MELIAS is convicted of rape. He becomes the first person to be convicted of a crime based on DNA evidence.
• New York v. CASTRO is the first case in which the admissibility of DNA is seriously challenged. It sets in motion a string of events that culminate in a call for certificationCertification is a process through which a scientist can demonstrate their knowledge and competence in a particular field or in performing specific assays. It involves meeting established standards and requirements set by a certifying body. Read Full Definition, accreditationAccreditation – a process by which a laboratory must prove to an accrediting agency that their processes, equipment, and employees are competent, credible, and accurate. The accrediting agency will inspect the laboratory and observe its Read Full Definition, standardization, and quality controlQuality control (QC) refers to a series of activities and measures conducted on individual laboratory tests or analyses to verify and ensure the accuracy and reliability of the results. QC is a reactive approach that Read Full Definition guidelines for both DNA laboratories and the general forensic community.

Lewellen, McCurdy, Horton, and Asselin, Leslie, and McKinley publish milestone papers introducing a novel procedure for analyzing drugs in whole blood by homogeneous"Homogeneous" refers to a state in which a substance or mixture is uniform throughout, meaning that its composition, properties, and characteristics are consistent and identical in all parts of the substance or mixture. In various Read Full Definition enzyme immunoassayAn immunoassay is a biochemical test commonly used in medical and scientific laboratories to detect and measure the presence of a specific molecule or compound in a sample. This type of assay relies on the Read Full Definition (EMIT).

• In the USA, Gary DOTSON becomes the first person to have a conviction overturned on the basis of DNA evidence. DOTSON has served eight years of a 25-50 year sentence for rape.
• The Federal Government and several States and Territories begin developing regulatory standards for DNA collection and handling procedures. 
• Australia’s first court case involving DNA evidence. In an ACT court, Desmond APPLEBEE is convicted of three counts of sexual assault (when the results were in, he changed his mind)  
• Police secured the conviction of George KAUFMAN, who raped sixteen women over a four-year period in Melbourne’s southeastern suburbs. Confronted with DNA evidence, KAUFMAN confesses.
• K. Kasai and colleagues publish the first paper suggesting the D1S80 locusA locus is the precise position of a gene on a chromosome. Different alleles of the same gene occupy the same locus. Read Full Definition (pMCT118) for forensic DNA analysis.

• The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) began in 1990 as a pilot project with 12 state and local forensic laboratories.
• Walsh Automation Inc. launched the development of an automated imaging system called the Integrated Ballistics Identification System, or IBIS, to compare the marks left on fired bullets, cartridge cases, and shell casings.

K. Kasai and colleagues published the first paper suggesting the D1S80 locus (pMCT118) for forensic DNA analysis. D1S80 was subsequently developed by Cetus (later Roche Molecular Systems) corporation as a commercially available forensic DNA typing system.