Forensic Science Timeline: The Contemporary Era (1950 AD to Present)

In 1952, British researchers Archer John Porter Martin and Richard Laurence Millington Synge were awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their invention of gas-liquid partition chromatography. This groundbreaking technique revolutionized the analysis of complex chemical mixtures, including drugs and poisons, making it an essential tool in forensic toxicology and analytical chemistry.

Paul L. Kirk published Crime Investigation, one of the first comprehensive textbooks on criminalistics and forensic science. This groundbreaking work integrated both theory and practical applications, solidifying Kirk’s influence in the forensic field and shaping the study of crime scene investigation for future generations.

James Watson, Francis Crick, and Maurice Wilkins identified the double-helical structure of DNA, revolutionizing molecular biology and forensic science. This breakthrough laid the foundation for DNA fingerprinting, forensic genetics, and modern criminal investigations.

R. F. Borkenstein, a captain of the Indiana State Police, invented the Breathalyzer, the first practical device for measuring blood alcohol concentration (BAC) in suspected impaired drivers. This innovation revolutionized law enforcement by providing a reliable, non-invasive method for field sobriety testing, significantly improving the detection and prosecution of drunk driving offenses.

De Saram published detailed temperature measurements from executed prisoners, establishing a scientific basis for estimating time since death from body cooling. His work became a cornerstone in forensic pathology. Further advancements were made with his additional publications in 1957, followed by the classic paper by Fiddes and Patten in 1958, refining the methodology for forensic investigations.

The murder trial of Dr. Sam Sheppard brought blood spatter analysis into the public spotlight. The case, which involved forensic interpretation of blood patterns at the crime scene, became widely known and inspired numerous movies, TV shows, and books, significantly influencing the portrayal of forensic science in popular culture.

American forensic anthropologists Thomas Mocker and Thomas Stewart identified the growth stages of skeletal bones, forming a foundational basis for forensic anthropology. Their work significantly improved age estimation techniques used in forensic investigations and human identification.

A. S. Weiner and colleagues introduced H-lectin as a reliable method to positively determine the O blood type, refining blood classification in forensic serology.

Harrison and Gilroy developed a qualitative colorimetric chemical test to detect barium, antimony, and lead on a person’s hands, helping identify individuals who fired firearms.

Swiss scientist Maurice Müller adapted the Ouchterlony antibody-antigen diffusion test for precipitin testing, allowing forensic experts to distinguish between human and animal blood.

Marshall and colleagues published a series of papers refining the determination of time since death based on postmortem cooling, contributing to forensic pathology.

Lucas, in Canada, pioneered the use of gas chromatography (GC) for the forensic identification of petroleum products, laying the groundwork for its application in arson and environmental forensics.

The development of the sound spectrograph allowed for the recording and analysis of voiceprints, leading to their use in investigations and court cases based on recorded phone calls and audio evidence.

Hungary became the first country in Europe to research lip prints (cheiloscopy) as forensic evidence. Investigators identified lip traces on a glass door at a murder scene, proving their potential for criminalistic identification. This discovery laid the foundation for using lip prints in forensic investigations.

C. Djerassi’s research group published extensive studies on mass spectral analysis, focusing on natural products such as tropane alkaloids and cannabinoids. These advancements contributed to the forensic identification of drugs and toxic substances, strengthening forensic toxicology and analytical chemistry.

• 1963: D.A. Hopkinson and colleagues first identified the polymorphic nature of erythrocyte acid phosphatase (EAP).
• 1964: N. Spencer and colleagues discovered the polymorphic nature of red cell phosphoglucomutase (PGM).
• 1966: R.A. Fildes and H. Harris identified the polymorphic nature of red cell adenylate kinase (AK).
• 1968: Spencer and colleagues first identified the polymorphic nature of red cell adenosine deaminase (ADA).

These discoveries contributed significantly to forensic serology, helping to refine blood analysis for forensic identification and paternity testing.

Brian J. Culliford and Brian Wraxall developed the immunoelectrophoretic technique for haptoglobin typing in bloodstains, enhancing forensic blood analysis. In 1967, Culliford further pioneered gel-based methods for testing isoenzymes in dried bloodstains, significantly advancing forensic serology. His contributions also extended to developing techniques for analyzing proteins and isoenzymes in blood, body fluids, and secretions, laying the foundation for modern forensic biochemistry.

The FBI established the National Crime Information Center (NCIC), the first computerized national filing system for law enforcement. This system provided instant access to critical data on wanted persons, stolen vehicles, weapons, and other criminal records, revolutionizing information-sharing in criminal investigations across the United States.

Brian J. Culliford of the British Metropolitan Police Laboratory pioneered the development of gel-based methods for testing isoenzymes in dried bloodstains. His work was instrumental in advancing forensic serology by establishing techniques for analyzing proteins and isoenzymes in blood, body fluids, and secretions, significantly improving forensic identification and crime scene investigations.

Spencer and colleagues identified the polymorphic nature of red cell adenosine deaminase (ADA), marking a significant advancement in forensic biochemistry. This discovery contributed to forensic serology, improving the ability to differentiate individuals based on genetic variations in blood enzymes, which became crucial in criminal investigations and paternity testing.

Brian J. Culliford published The Examination and Typing of Bloodstains in the Crime Laboratory, a seminal work establishing reliable protocols for forensic bloodstain analysis. His book played a crucial role in disseminating standardized typing methods for polymorphic proteins and enzyme markers in forensic laboratories across the United States and worldwide, enhancing forensic serology’s accuracy and reliability in criminal investigations.

The American Academy of Forensic Sciences (AAFS) founded the Physical Anthropology Section, officially integrating forensic anthropology as a specialized discipline within forensic science. This milestone helped advance the study of skeletal remains in criminal investigations and reinforced the role of anthropologists in law enforcement and legal proceedings.

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) completed the computerization of fingerprint files, marking a significant advancement in forensic identification. This development enhanced fingerprint-matching speed and accuracy, revolutionizing criminal investigations and record-keeping by enabling rapid searches through vast databases.

A team of researchers—J. E. Wessel, P. F. Jones, Q. Y. Kwan, R. S. Nesbitt, and E. J. Rattin developed advanced gunshot residue (GSR) detection technology at Aerospace Corporation, USA. Their breakthrough method utilized scanning electron microscopy with energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX), enabling more precise detection and analysis of GSR particles. This advancement allowed forensic experts to link a suspect to a crime scene, determine the distance from which a shot was fired, and enhance the reliability of firearm-related evidence in criminal investigations.

The FBI funded the development of the first fingerprint reader, marking a major step toward automated fingerprint identification. This prototype used capacitive techniques to collect fingerprint minutiae for classification. Due to storage limitations at the time, only biographical data, fingerprint classification details, and minutiae points were stored—not full fingerprint images. This advancement laid the groundwork for the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) and modern biometric security systems.

The Federal Rules of Evidence (FRE) were enacted as a congressional statute, establishing standardized guidelines for admissibility of evidence in U.S. courts. Initially promulgated by the U.S. Supreme Court, these rules introduced a relevancy standard, ensuring that scientific evidence deemed more prejudicial than probative could be excluded. This legal framework significantly influenced forensic science, shaping how expert testimony and forensic evidence are presented in courtrooms.

J. A. Zoro and K. Hadley conducted the first comprehensive evaluation of gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) for forensic applications in the UK. Their review included the use of Pyrolysis-MS (Py-MS) for polymer analysis and GC-MS for detecting drugs and ignitable liquids, marking a significant advancement in forensic analytical chemistry.

The FBI implemented the first Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), a limited computerized scanning mechanism designed to develop a fingerprint database for forensic investigations. This marked the beginning of automated fingerprint analysis, significantly improving the speed and accuracy of criminal identification.

In Japan, investigators accidentally discovered that cyanoacrylate (superglue) fumes develop latent fingerprints. Fuseo Matsumur, a trace evidence examiner, noticed his own fingerprints appearing on microscope slides while mounting hairs from a taxi driver murder case. He shared his findings with Masato Soba, a latent print examiner, who later became the first to intentionally develop latent prints using superglue fuming, revolutionizing forensic fingerprint analysis.

Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was introduced as a powerful analytical tool in forensic science. This technique enables chemical identification and structural analysis of compounds based on the vibrational modes of their molecular functional groups. FTIR became an essential method for analyzing drugs, fibers, paints, explosives, and trace evidence, significantly advancing forensic material identification.

The Yorkshire Ripper case in Britain demonstrated the increasing role of computers in investigating serial killings. This case contributed to developing psychological profiling techniques, which gained prominence in the following decade. Profiling helped law enforcement understand offender behavior patterns, motives, and psychological characteristics, ultimately revolutionizing criminal investigations and forensic psychology.

The Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) became the first law enforcement agency in the world to implement an Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), revolutionizing forensic identification. This groundbreaking technology enabled rapid, accurate fingerprint comparisons, significantly enhancing the efficiency of criminal investigations. By automating fingerprint matching, the system eliminated the reliance on time-consuming manual searches, allowing law enforcement to process and identify suspects with unprecedented speed. This milestone laid the foundation for modern biometric technology, influencing the global adoption of automated fingerprint recognition systems in law enforcement, border security, and identity verification worldwide.

In a landmark case for forensic odontology, bite mark evidence played a crucial role in securing the conviction of serial killer Theodore “Ted” Bundy. During his Florida trial for the Chi Omega sorority house murders, forensic experts matched Bundy’s distinctive dental impressions to bite marks found on one of the victims. This groundbreaking use of forensic dentistry provided compelling physical evidence, linking Bundy directly to the crime scene. The case set a precedent for the use of bite mark analysis in criminal investigations, further establishing forensic odontology as a key discipline in forensic science.

Dr. William Bass, a forensic anthropologist at the University of Tennessee, Knoxville, established the Anthropology Research Facility, widely known as the Body Farm. This first-of-its-kind facility allowed researchers to study human decomposition under controlled conditions, revolutionizing forensic science—particularly in determining the postmortem interval (PMI). The research conducted at the Body Farm has significantly advanced forensic anthropology, crime scene investigation, and taphonomy, influencing law enforcement techniques and inspiring forensic television dramas.

While working at Cetus Corporation, Dr. Kary Mullis conceived the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a revolutionary technique that amplifies DNA sequences. This advancement made DNA analysis faster, more sensitive, and applicable to forensic science. Although the first paper on PCR was not published until 1985, the technique became a fundamental tool in genetic fingerprinting, forensic investigations, and medical diagnostics.

Professor Alec Jeffreys at the University of Leicester discovered that each human, except identical twins, has a unique DNA profile. He developed the first DNA profiling test, using multilocus restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis. His groundbreaking research, published in Nature in 1985, provided the foundation for DNA fingerprinting, which soon became a powerful tool in forensic identification, criminal investigations, and paternity testing worldwide.

The Police and Criminal Evidence Act (PACE) was passed in 1984, establishing a legal framework for law enforcement procedures in England and Wales. This legislation set standards for police conduct, including handling suspects, detention procedures, search powers, and evidence collection. PACE introduced safeguards against wrongful convictions, ensuring that interrogations were recorded, suspects had access to legal representation, and forensic evidence was handled correctly. It remains a cornerstone of modern policing and criminal justice in the UK.

In 1986, the human genetics group at Cetus Corporation, led by Henry Erlich, adapted Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) for forensic applications, paving the way for DNA typing in criminal investigations. Two years later, this led to the development of the first commercial forensic PCR typing kit, HLA DQα (DQA1).

People v. Pestinikas became the first U.S. case to admit DNA testing that same year. Forensic scientist Edward Blake used PCR-based DNA testing (HLA DQα) to confirm that different autopsy samples came from the same person. A civil court accepted the evidence, marking a groundbreaking moment for DNA in forensic investigations.

Colin Pitchfork became the first criminal identified and convicted using DNA profiling in England. This landmark case not only led to his conviction for the murder of two young girls but also exonerated an innocent suspect, proving DNA’s dual power in both convicting and clearing individuals.

In Florida, DNA profiling was used for the first time to convict Tommy Lee Andrews for a series of sexual assaults. This was the first DNA-based conviction in the United States, marking a turning point in forensic science and the admissibility of DNA in American courts.

Robert Melias became the first person in the UK convicted of rape based solely on DNA evidence. This historic conviction reinforced the reliability of DNA as primary forensic evidence in criminal cases.

New York v. Castro became the first serious legal challenge to the admissibility of DNA evidence in a U.S. courtroom. The case exposed concerns about laboratory standards, testing protocols, and quality control, leading to the push for forensic DNA accreditation, certification, and standardized analysis procedures worldwide.

In 1988, Lewellen, McCurdy, Horton, Asselin, Leslie, and McKinley introduced a groundbreaking procedure for analyzing drugs in whole blood using homogeneous enzyme immunoassay (EMIT). Their milestone research revolutionized forensic toxicology, allowing more accurate and efficient drug detection in biological samples. This advancement significantly enhanced forensic investigations, particularly in cases involving drug-related crimes, DUI cases, and post-mortem toxicology.

Gary Dotson became the first person in the United States to have his conviction overturned based on DNA evidence. Wrongfully convicted of rape, Dotson had already served eight years of a 25-50 year sentence before DNA testing proved his innocence. This case marked the beginning of DNA’s role in exonerating the falsely accused.

The U.S. Federal Government and multiple states and territories began formulating DNA collection and handling regulations in response to the growing use of forensic DNA. These standards ensured accuracy, reliability, and proper forensic procedures, shaping future forensic DNA applications.

Desmond Applebee became the first person in Australia convicted using DNA evidence. In an ACT court, he was found guilty of three counts of sexual assault, marking a turning point in Australian forensic history.

George Kaufman, who had raped 16 women over a four-year period in Melbourne’s southeastern suburbs, was convicted after DNA evidence directly linked him to the crimes. Confronted with the forensic proof, Kaufman confessed.

K. Kasai and colleagues published the first study suggesting the D1S80 locus (pMCT118) for forensic DNA analysis. This pioneering research laid the groundwork for future forensic genetics, further expanding the application of DNA typing in criminal investigations.

The Combined DNA Index System (CODIS) was launched as a pilot project across 12 state and local forensic laboratories in the U.S. Developed by the FBI, CODIS allowed forensic experts to store, compare, and link DNA profiles, greatly enhancing criminal investigations and suspect identification. This system eventually became the backbone of the national DNA database, playing a crucial role in solving crimes and exonerating the innocent.

Walsh Automation Inc. introduced the Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS), an automated imaging system for comparing firearm evidence, such as bullets, cartridge cases, and shell casings. IBIS allowed law enforcement to digitally match ballistic evidence across crime scenes, improving firearm tracing and linking gun-related crimes across jurisdictions. IBIS became a crucial tool for forensic ballistics investigations worldwide.

In 1990, K. Kasai and colleagues published the first study suggesting the D1S80 locus (pMCT118) for forensic DNA analysis. This breakthrough led to the development of D1S80 as a commercially available forensic DNA typing system by Cetus Corporation (later Roche Molecular Systems).

This marked a significant advancement in forensic genetics, providing law enforcement and forensic laboratories with a standardized DNA profiling method for criminal investigations and legal proceedings.

In 1991, the National Research Council Committee on Forensic DNA (NRC I) published DNA Technology in Forensic Science in response to growing concerns about the practice and reliability of forensic DNA analysis.

This landmark report provided scientific guidelines and recommendations for DNA testing, addressing standardization, validation, and quality control issues in forensic laboratories. It played a pivotal role in shaping best practices and establishing credibility for DNA evidence in criminal investigations and courtrooms worldwide.

Thomas Caskey and colleagues publish the first paper proposing the use of short tandem repeats (STRs) for forensic DNA analysis. This groundbreaking work lays the foundation for modern forensic DNA profiling. In collaboration with Roche Molecular Systems, Promega Corporation, and Perkin-Elmer Corporation, commercial kits for forensic DNA STR typing are independently developed, revolutionizing the field of forensic science and enabling more precise and reliable identification in criminal investigations.

The FBI partners with Mnemonic Systems to develop Drugfire, an automated imaging system designed to compare marks left on cartridge cases and shell casings, similar to the Integrated Ballistic Identification System (IBIS). This advanced technology enhances the ability to link firearms to crime scenes by analyzing ballistic evidence. Later, the system is expanded to include the capability to compare fired bullets, further strengthening its utility in forensic investigations and criminal justice.

The National Institute of Forensic Science (NIFS) officially begins operations in Australia. As a key organization in the forensic science community, NIFS is tasked with developing national standards for quality control and overseeing the accreditation of forensic laboratories across the country. Its establishment marks a significant step toward ensuring consistency, reliability, and excellence in forensic science practices, ultimately strengthening the integrity of forensic evidence in the Australian justice system.

In Daubert v. Merrell Dow Pharmaceuticals, the U.S. Supreme Court establishes a new standard for the admission of scientific evidence in federal courts, replacing the Frye Standard set in 1923. The ruling emphasizes the judge’s role as a “gatekeeper” in determining the reliability and relevance of scientific evidence. Citing philosopher Karl Popper’s principle that scientific theories must be falsifiable, the Court outlines criteria for assessing whether evidence constitutes “scientific knowledge” and is admissible. This landmark decision significantly impacts the use of forensic and scientific evidence in legal proceedings, promoting greater scrutiny and rigor in its application.

Roche Molecular Systems (formerly Cetus) releases a set of five additional DNA markers, known as “polymarkers,” to complement the HLA-DQA1 forensic DNA typing system. This enhancement improves the accuracy and power of DNA analysis, particularly in forensic investigations, by increasing the number of genetic markers available for comparison.

On 10 April 1995, the world’s first national DNA database, National DNA Database (NDNAD), begins operations in the United Kingdom. This groundbreaking initiative allows law enforcement to store and match DNA profiles from crime scenes and suspects, marking a significant step forward in forensic science and criminal investigations. The database becomes a powerful tool for solving crimes, exonerating the innocent, and linking serial offenders.

In response to ongoing concerns about the statistical interpretation of forensic DNA evidence, the second National Research Council Committee on Forensic DNA (NRC II) was convened. They published The Evaluation of Forensic DNA Evidence, providing critical guidelines and recommendations for the interpretation and use of DNA evidence in criminal cases. This report aimed to enhance the accuracy and reliability of DNA analysis and its application in the justice system.

Rodney Winters was convicted of the rape and murder of a woman at South Australia’s Edinburgh Air Force base, a case that had remained unsolved for 14 years. DNA profiling matched him to semen found on the victim’s body, leading to his conviction. Winters eventually confessed to the crime, marking a significant breakthrough in the use of DNA evidence to solve cold cases.

The National Academy of Sciences officially declared DNA evidence to be reliable, marking a pivotal moment in forensic science. This certification reinforced the use of DNA as a standard and trusted tool in criminal investigations, ensuring its continued acceptance in courts across the United States and around the world.

The FBI introduced computerized searches of the Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS), a revolutionary advancement in fingerprint identification. The system enabled faster and more accurate matching of fingerprint data across jurisdictions. Livescan and card scan devices allowed interdepartmental submissions, greatly improving the efficiency of fingerprint analysis in criminal investigations.

In the United States, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) evidence is used in a courtroom for the first time. Paul Ware is convicted of the rape and murder of a four-year-old girl after mitochondrial DNA profiling links him to a hair found on the child’s body. This case marked a significant milestone in the application of mtDNA in forensic investigations, showcasing its potential to solve complex cases where nuclear DNA may not be available.

The FBI establishes the National DNA Index System (NDIS) in the United States, allowing for interstate cooperation and enabling federal law enforcement agencies to compare DNA profiles electronically. This system significantly enhances the ability to link crimes across different jurisdictions, improving the efficiency of investigations and expanding the use of DNA evidence in solving cold cases and criminal investigations nationwide.

The FBI implements the Integrated Automated Fingerprint Identification System (IAFIS), significantly improving the speed of fingerprint identification. The new system reduces fingerprint inquiry response times from two weeks to just two hours. By upgrading its computerized fingerprint database, IAFIS allows for paperless submission, storage, and direct searching of fingerprint records in the national database maintained by the FBI. This innovation enhances the efficiency of criminal investigations and improves the accuracy of criminal identifications across the United States.

A Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) was signed between the FBI and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF), enabling the use of the National Integrated Ballistics Network (NIBIN). This collaboration facilitated the exchange of firearms data between the Drugfire system and the Integrated Ballistics Identification System (IBIS). The NIBIN system allows law enforcement agencies to digitally capture, store, and compare ballistic evidence, such as shell casings and bullets, to link firearms to specific crimes and provide critical evidence for investigations.

In the UK, the Forensic Science Service announces that the number of DNA profiles of suspects and convicted criminals on the national DNA database has reached one million, representing roughly one-third of the estimated criminally active population. This milestone highlights the growing importance and use of DNA databases in forensic investigations and crime prevention.