Forensic Science Timeline: The Modern Era (1800 AD to 1950 AD)

In 1800, Franz Joseph Gall (1758–1828) introduced phrenology, the study of skull conformation as an indicator of mental faculties and character traits. Gall theorized that different brain regions controlled specific behaviors, and their development influenced the shape of the skull. While later discredited as a science, phrenology influenced early forensic psychology and criminology, shaping theories on criminal behavior and personality assessment in the 19th century.

In 1801, Andrew Duncan Sr. (1744–1828) delivered Britain’s first forensic medicine lecture at Edinburgh University, marking a significant step in the academic recognition of forensic science. His lecture laid the foundation for forensic medicine as a formal discipline, influencing the development of legal medicine and criminal investigations in the UK and beyond.

In 1806, German chemist Valentine Rose revolutionized forensic toxicology by developing a method to detect arsenic in the human body, significantly improving poison-related death investigations. His technique involved treating stomach contents with potassium carbonate, calcium oxide, and nitric acid, producing arsenic trioxide, which could then be confirmed using Metzger’s test. Rose’s breakthrough provided a scientific and reliable method for identifying arsenic poisoning, laying the foundation for modern forensic toxicology and shaping future advancements in criminal investigations involving poisons.

In 1807, the University of Edinburgh became the first institution to establish a Chair of Medical Jurisprudence, with Andrew Duncan Jr. as its inaugural holder. This milestone formalized the academic study of forensic medicine, integrating it into medical education and strengthening its role in legal investigations. The initiative laid the groundwork for the systematic teaching of forensic science, influencing generations of forensic experts and shaping the future of medico-legal studies worldwide.

In 1810, Germany recorded the first known use of document examination in a criminal investigation, employing a chemical test on ink dyes to authenticate a document. This milestone marked the beginning of questioned document analysis, laying the foundation for forensic handwriting and ink analysis. This early forensic technique evolved into a crucial investigative tool, aiding in fraud detection, forgery cases, and legal document verification in modern criminal justice systems.

In 1810, Eugène François Vidocq, a former criminal turned law enforcer, established the Sûreté in Paris, the world’s first detective force. Vidocq introduced undercover work, criminal profiling, and record-keeping of offenders, laying the foundation for modern investigative techniques. His methods, including disguises and informant networks, influenced police forces worldwide, shaping modern criminology, forensic science, and detective work. The Sûreté Nationale remains one of the most influential institutions in criminal investigation history.

Mathieu Bonaventure Orfila (1787-1853), a Spaniard who became a professor of medicinal and forensic chemistry at Univ. of Paris, published his first book called Traité des poisons (Treatise on Poison), which introduced a new branch of science named toxicology (the study of poison); hence he is considered the father of modern toxicology. Made significant contributions to the development of tests for blood in a forensic context and was credited as the first to attempt the use of a microscope to assess blood and semen stains.

In 1813, James S. Stringham (1775–1817) became the first Professor of Medical Jurisprudence in the United States, marking the formal introduction of forensic medicine into American academia. His appointment emphasized the growing importance of medical knowledge in legal cases, laying the foundation for forensic science education in the U.S. and influencing the integration of medicine and law in criminal investigations.

In 1816, forensic science took a significant step forward when investigators matched a suspect’s shoes and clothing to evidence found at a murder scene where a young woman was discovered drowned in a shallow pool. This case demonstrated the potential of physical evidence, such as footprints and fabric traces, in linking suspects to crimes. This milestone paved the way for modern forensic techniques, emphasizing the importance of trace evidence, crime scene reconstruction, and physical matching in criminal investigations.

In 1821, Sevillas made a groundbreaking discovery by successfully isolating arsenic from human stomach contents and urine, marking the birth of forensic toxicology. This achievement provided a scientific basis for poison detection, paving the way for future advancements in criminal investigations. By proving that arsenic could be identified in bodily fluids postmortem, Sevillas laid the foundation for forensic chemistry, enabling experts to analyze toxins in suspected poisoning cases. This milestone set the stage for later innovations, including the Marsh test (1836), which further refined arsenic detection methods and solidified forensic toxicology as a critical tool in criminal justice.

John Evangelist Purkinji (1787–1869), a professor of anatomy at the University of Breslau, devises the first crude fingerprint classification system when he publishes his thesis discussing 9 fingerprint patterns and suggesting a classification system based on nine major types. However, he too makes no mention of the value of fingerprints for personal identification.

In 1828, Scottish scientist William Nicol (1768–1851) revolutionized optical microscopy by inventing the polarizing light microscope, commonly known as the Nicol Prism. His innovation allowed scientists to examine materials under polarized light, significantly enhancing the study of crystalline structures, minerals, and biological specimens. This breakthrough laid the foundation for forensic microscopy, enabling forensic scientists to analyze fibers, glass fragments, and other microscopic evidence with greater accuracy.

In 1828, the Burke and Hare murders in Edinburgh, Scotland, became one of the most infamous cases in forensic history, reinforcing the importance of medicolegal testimony in criminal trials. Over the course of ten months, William Burke and William Hare killed 16 victims, selling their corpses to Dr. Robert Knox, an anatomy lecturer, for dissection.

During William Burke’s trial, Sir Robert Christison (1797–1882) testified as a medical witness, analyzing the victims’ cause of death and providing scientific evidence. His testimony helped convict Burke, leading to his execution in 1829. This case solidified forensic medicine’s role in legal proceedings, demonstrating the importance of postmortem examinations, expert witness testimony, and medical evidence in criminal investigations. The Burke and Hare murders also led to the Anatomy Act of 1832, which regulated the use of cadavers for medical study and helped curb illegal body snatching.

In 1829, Sir Robert Christison (1797–1882), a leading Professor of Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh University, published “Treatise on Poisons”, a groundbreaking work that became the definitive textbook on toxicology for many years. This comprehensive study provided detailed classifications of poisons, their physiological effects, and forensic detection methods, significantly advancing the scientific investigation of poison-related deaths. Christison’s work laid the foundation for modern forensic toxicology, helping shape legal and medical approaches to poison detection, criminal cases, and antidote development. His contributions cemented toxicology as an essential discipline in forensic science and criminal investigations.

In 1829, Thomas Bell (1792–1880) first described pink teeth, initially associating them with asphyxial deaths such as hanging and drowning. This discovery marked an important milestone in forensic science, as it was believed to be a pathognomonic indicator of these causes of death. Later research revealed that pink discoloration results from hemoglobin infiltration into dentinal tubules due to intravascular hemolysis, increased capillary pressure, and environmental factors such as moisture and decomposition. While not conclusive evidence of asphyxia, pink teeth remain a valuable forensic clue, helping pathologists reconstruct circumstances surrounding unexplained deaths.

In the 1830s, Belgian statistician Lambert Adolphe Jacques Quetelet laid the groundwork for forensic identification by proposing that no two human bodies are exactly alike. His pioneering work in statistical analysis of human physical traits introduced the concept of anthropometry, emphasizing the uniqueness of individual measurements. This principle later influenced Alphonse Bertillon’s development of the Bertillon System, a method of personal identification based on detailed body measurements. Quetelet’s contributions helped shape modern forensic science by reinforcing the idea that biometric data could be systematically used for human identification.

In 1831, German chemist Erhard Friedrich Leuchs first identified the enzymatic activity of amylase in human saliva, specifically its ability to break down starch. He described the diastatic action of salivary ptyalin (amylase), marking a crucial milestone in biochemistry and forensic science. This discovery paved the way for understanding enzymatic digestion and later contributed to forensic applications, such as salivary biomarker analysis in crime scene investigations.

In 1835, Henry Goddard, one of Scotland Yard’s original Bow Street Runners, made history by using bullet comparison to solve a murder case. He identified a visible flaw on a recovered bullet, tracing it back to a specific mold. This breakthrough demonstrated that bullets carry unique markings and imperfections, allowing them to be linked to the weapon that fired them. Goddard’s discovery laid the foundation for forensic ballistics, revolutionizing crime scene investigations and enabling law enforcement to match bullets to specific firearms, a technique still crucial in modern forensic science.

In 1836, two major advancements revolutionized forensic toxicology by improving arsenic detection in poisoning cases. Alfred Swaine Taylor, a pioneer in forensic medicine, developed the first method for detecting arsenic in human tissue, establishing forensic toxicology as a distinct medical specialty. Around the same time, James Marsh, a Scottish chemist, introduced the Marsh test, an easier and more sensitive method for detecting arsenic. His process involved treating a solution with hydrogen, producing arsine gas that decomposed into a black arsenic deposit if arsenic was present. Although an early court case dismissed the Marsh test due to insufficient evidence, later refinements made it the gold standard for arsenic detection in criminal investigations. These developments marked a turning point in forensic science, enabling more accurate toxicological analysis in poisoning cases.

In 1839, H. Bayard made a groundbreaking contribution to forensic biology by publishing the first reliable procedures for the microscopic detection of sperm, marking a significant advancement in sexual assault investigations. His research established microscopic identification techniques that allowed forensic scientists to detect sperm cells on various fabrics, noting differences in their appearance depending on the substrate.

Bayard, who earned his Doctor of Medicine in 1836, was a student of Charles-Prosper Ollivier d’Angers (1796–1845) and later took over much of his forensic practice. His pioneering work laid the foundation for modern forensic serology, enabling the scientific examination of sexual assault evidence and strengthening the role of forensic medicine in criminal justice.

In 1839, Dr. John Davy (1790–1868) conducted some of the earliest recorded experiments on postmortem body temperature to estimate time since death. While working in Malta and Britain, Davy used a mercury thermometer to measure the cooling rate of deceased soldiers, laying the groundwork for forensic pathology.

His observations marked one of the first systematic attempts to correlate body temperature decline with time of death, a principle that later became fundamental in forensic investigations. Davy’s work paved the way for modern techniques in algor mortis (postmortem cooling), now a key factor in forensic time-of-death estimation used in homicide investigations.

In 1840, Marie Lafarge was convicted of poisoning her husband after Mathieu Orfila (1787–1853), the father of forensic toxicology, applied the Marsh test to detect arsenic in his remains. This was the first time forensic toxicology was used in a court of law, setting a precedent for scientific evidence in criminal trials.

In 1842, Edgar Allan Poe published “The Murders in the Rue Morgue”, the first fictional detective story, introducing C. Auguste Dupin, a character known for his analytical reasoning. This work inspired the evolution of forensic science by shaping public perception of criminal investigations and influencing real-life forensic methodologies. Poe’s story marked the beginning of the symbiotic relationship between forensic science and detective fiction, paving the way for legendary sleuths like Sherlock Holmes and the modern forensic investigator.

In 1842, Carl Rokitansky (1804–1878) published the first volume of Handbuch der pathologischen Anatomie, a milestone in pathological anatomy and the first systematic classification of pathological specimens. As a leading pathologist at the University of Vienna, Rokitansky performed over 30,000 autopsies, significantly advancing forensic pathology and legal medicine. His work attracted students from across Europe and laid the foundation for modern post-mortem examinations, shaping forensic investigations for generations.

In 1849, Dr. Jeffries Wyman, an anatomy professor, led a forensic team that used bones and teeth remains as evidence in a murder investigation, marking a major advancement in forensic anthropology. This case demonstrated the importance of skeletal remains in identifying victims and determining causes of death, laying the foundation for modern forensic osteology and dental identification techniques. Wyman’s work showcased how human remains could provide crucial legal evidence, influencing the future of forensic pathology and crime scene investigations.