Forensic Science Timeline: The Modern Era (1800 AD to 1950 AD)

In the 1850s, Rudolph Virchow (1821–1902) revolutionized cellular biology and pathology, establishing the concept that diseases originate from cellular changes. His research at Würzburg led to the publication of the six-volume Handbuch der speziellen Pathologie und Therapie (1854), a groundbreaking work in pathology. In 1855, he introduced the famous aphorism “omnis cellula e cellula” (every cell comes from another cell), forming a cornerstone of cell theory. Virchow’s discoveries advanced forensic pathology, influencing how scientists and medical examiners understand disease, trauma, and cause of death at a cellular level.

In 1850, Johann Ludwig Casper (1796–1864) pioneered forensic pathology by publishing the first color lithographs of forensic cases, enhancing the visual study of wounds and injuries in cadavers. His detailed illustrations, later featured in Atlas zum Handbuch der gerichtlichen Medicin, provided unprecedented accuracy in documenting gunshot wounds. These lithographs became essential forensic references, advancing criminal investigations, forensic pathology, and medico-legal education.

In 1851, Belgian chemist Jean Servais Stas became the first scientist to successfully identify vegetable poisons in body tissues, a major breakthrough in forensic toxicology. His work proved that alkaloid poisons, such as nicotine and strychnine, could be extracted and detected from biological samples, setting the foundation for modern poison analysis. Stas’ method played a crucial role in criminal cases, making toxicological evidence a key component of forensic investigations.

In 1853, Ludwig Teichmann (1823–1895) developed the Teichmann Test (Hematin Test), the first reliable microcrystalline test for detecting blood (hemoglobin). His method involved identifying rhomboid-shaped hemin crystals, providing a simple yet effective way to confirm blood presence in crime scene stains, fabrics, and forensic investigations. The Teichmann test remains in use today, marking a pivotal advancement in forensic serology.

Between 1854 and 1859, San Francisco became the first U.S. city to use photography for criminal identification, capturing mugshots for prison records. The introduction of dry plate photography by Richard Maddox improved upon earlier wet plate methods, making inmate documentation more practical and systematic, paving the way for modern forensic photography.

In 1856, Sir William Herschel (1833–1917), a British officer in the Indian Civil Service, pioneered the use of fingerprints for document verification. Recognizing that fingerprints remain unchanged for over 50 years, he required thumbprints on contracts, replacing signatures for illiterate individuals. This marked the first recorded use of fingerprints for identity verification, laying the foundation for forensic fingerprint analysis.

In 1857, the first scientific paper on hair analysis was published in France, introducing hair and fiber analysis as forensic evidence. This breakthrough emphasized the importance of microscopic comparisons in criminal investigations, leading to trace evidence analysis, which remains a crucial tool in modern forensic science.

In 1859, Gustav Kirchhoff (1824–1887) and Robert Bunsen (1811–1899) revolutionized analytical chemistry by inventing the flame spectroscope in Heidelberg, Germany. This instrument allowed the identification of elements based on their emission spectra, laying the foundation for forensic spectroscopy. Their discovery enabled forensic scientists to analyze trace elements in evidence, such as gunshot residue, drugs, and toxic substances, making spectroscopy an essential tool in modern forensic investigations.

In 1863, two groundbreaking presumptive blood tests emerged:

• J. Izaak Van Deen (1804–1869) developed the Guaiac test, using guaiac resin from a West Indian shrub to detect blood.
• Christian Friedrich Schönbein (1799–1868) discovered hemoglobin’s ability to oxidize hydrogen peroxide, producing foam—the basis of the hydrogen peroxide test for blood.

These tests marked the first forensic methods for identifying blood at crime scenes, paving the way for modern serological analysis.

In 1864, Odelbrecht became the first to advocate for photography in forensic investigations, recommending its use to identify criminals, document crime scenes, and preserve evidence. His work helped establish forensic photography as a critical tool in law enforcement, shaping modern crime scene documentation and evidence preservation techniques.

In 1867, Theodore George Wormley (1826–1897) published Micro-Chemistry of Poisons, the first American book dedicated entirely to toxicology. His research provided detailed chemical methods for poison identification, earning high praise for its originality. Wormley’s work laid the foundation for forensic toxicology in the United States, influencing the scientific detection of poisons in criminal cases.

In 1868, Swiss scientist Friedrich Miescher (1844–1895) discovered DNA, which he called nuclein, while studying white blood cells from pus-covered bandages. This discovery laid the foundation for modern forensic genetics, eventually leading to the development of DNA profiling, a revolutionary tool in criminal investigations and human identification.

In 1868, Francis Galton published Hereditary Genius, marking the beginning of psychological studies. Galton argued that intelligence and talent are hereditary, influencing future research in criminology, psychology, and forensic profiling.

In 1875, Richard Caton (1842–1926) used a galvanometer to measure electrical activity in the brains of monkeys and rabbits, proving that the brain generates electrical impulses. His work paved the way for electroencephalography (EEG), which later became crucial in forensic neuroscience and lie detection.

In 1876, Cesare Lombroso (1835–1909) published The Criminal Man, proposing that criminals could be identified by physical traits, which he called atavistic characteristics. Though later discredited, his work pioneered criminology and led to early criminal profiling techniques.

In 1877, Massachusetts became the first U.S. state to replace coroners with medical examiners, requiring them to have a medical license. This reform professionalized forensic pathology and improved death investigations.

In 1877, Thomas Taylor, a microscopist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, suggested that fingerprints could be used for criminal identification. Though his idea was published in Scientific American, it was not pursued at the time.

In 1879, German pathologist Rudolph Virchow studied hair as forensic evidence in a murder case, identifying individual variations in hair samples. He was the first to recognize the limitations of hair analysis, laying the groundwork for trace evidence comparison.

In 1879, Alphonse Bertillon (1853–1914), a French police clerk, began developing anthropometry, a method using body measurements for criminal identification. His system focused on recording five key measurements—head length, head breadth, middle finger length, left foot length, and cubit length—to distinguish individuals. Bertillon’s approach laid the groundwork for systematic identification methods, later evolving into the Bertillon System, which would revolutionize law enforcement tracking of criminals.

In 1880, Henry Faulds (1843–1930), a Scottish physician in Tokyo, published a landmark paper in Nature, demonstrating that fingerprints are unique and could be used for criminal identification. He pioneered the powder dusting technique to reveal latent fingerprints, laying the foundation for modern fingerprint forensics.

Faulds shared his fingerprint classification system with Charles Darwin, who, unable to assist, forwarded it to Francis Galton. William Herschel and Faulds later co-published a paper proving fingerprint uniqueness. Galton expanded their work, classifying fingerprint patterns into arches, loops, and whorls, a system still in use today.

In one of the first recorded uses of fingerprints to solve a crime, Faulds successfully eliminated an innocent suspect and identified the real perpetrator in a Tokyo burglary, proving the practical application of fingerprint evidence in forensic investigations.

In the 1880s, Cesare Lombroso experimented with a mechanical device to measure blood pressure and pulse changes associated with lying, an early step toward polygraph technology.

In 1882, Gilbert Thompson of the U.S. Geological Survey used thumbprints on wage chits to prevent forgery, marking the first known use of fingerprints for identification in the U.S..

In 1883, Mark Twain introduced fingerprint identification in Life on the Mississippi. Later, in Pudd’nhead Wilson, he featured a dramatic courtroom fingerprint identification, influencing public perception of forensic science.

In 1883, Alphonse Bertillon successfully applied anthropometry to identify the first recidivist (repeat offender), proving the effectiveness of body measurements for criminal identification. His system became the first scientific method used to track criminals, widely adopted in Europe and the U.S. before being replaced by fingerprinting. Despite its eventual decline, Bertillon’s work laid the foundation for modern forensic identification techniques, and his mugshot documentation remains standard in law enforcement today.

In 1887, England passed the Coroner’s Act, formalizing the coroner’s role in investigating sudden, violent, and unnatural deaths, shaping the modern medicolegal death investigation system.

In 1887, Womack became the first to use centigrade units to measure body temperature for estimating the time of death. This advancement marked a significant step in forensic pathology, as body temperature decline (algor mortis) became a key indicator in post-mortem interval (PMI) estimation. His work laid the foundation for modern forensic temperature-based methods, which remain essential in death investigations today.

In 1887, Arthur Conan Doyle published A Study in Scarlet, the first Sherlock Holmes novel, showcasing forensic techniques such as chemical stain analysis before they were widely used in real investigations.

In 1888, anthropometry, a system developed by Alphonse Bertillon, became widely used in Europe and the U.S. to systematically identify criminals based on physical measurements. This method reduced a criminal’s information to a set of numbers, allowing law enforcement to track repeat offenders more efficiently. Though later replaced by fingerprinting, Bertillon’s numerical classification system was a groundbreaking step in forensic identification.

In 1888, George Eastman invented the first handheld camera, the Kodak, making photography more accessible. Retailing at $25, this innovation transformed forensic photography, allowing investigators to capture crime scene evidence more efficiently. The portability of the Kodak camera played a vital role in documenting criminal investigations and crime scenes, shaping the evolution of modern forensic photography.

In 1889, Alexandre Lacassagne (1843–1924), a professor of forensic medicine at the University of Lyons, became the first to match bullets to a specific gun barrel. His research demonstrated that rifled gun barrels leave unique marks on bullets, allowing for firearm identification. At the time, his comparisons were based on the number of lands and grooves in the barrel, laying the foundation for modern forensic ballistics. Lacassagne’s pioneering work paved the way for firearm examination techniques that remain essential in criminal investigations today.

In 1891, Juan Vucetich, an Argentine police official, developed the first systematic fingerprint identification method, known as dactyloscopy. This innovation marked a significant shift in forensic science, moving away from anthropometry toward fingerprint-based identification.

In 1892, Francisca Rojas became the first person convicted using fingerprint evidence in Argentina. After murdering her two sons and attempting to blame another, her bloody fingerprint was found on a doorpost, conclusively linking her to the crime. Juan Vucetich‘s fingerprint identification method secured the conviction, leading Argentina to become the first country to officially replace anthropometry with fingerprinting for criminal investigations.

Read More about The Historical Case of Francisca Rojas: Argentina’s First Fingerprint Conviction

In 1891, Hans Gross (1847–1915), an Austrian examining magistrate and professor of criminal law, published Criminal Investigation, the first comprehensive guide on using physical evidence to solve crimes. His work pioneered modern forensic science, detailing investigative techniques, evidence collection, and crime scene analysis.

Gross also coined the term “criminalistics”, establishing a foundation for forensic methodologies that remain essential in law enforcement and forensic investigations today.

In 1892, Sir Francis Galton (1822–1911), a British scientist and nephew of Charles Darwin, published Fingerprints, the first comprehensive book on the nature of fingerprints and their use in crime-solving.

Galton’s research proved that fingerprints are unique, permanent, and classifiable, introducing minutiae points (ridge characteristics) for fingerprint identification—still referred to as “Galton’s Details” today. His work laid the scientific foundation for modern fingerprint classification systems, influencing law enforcement worldwide.

In 1894, Alfred Dreyfus, a French military officer, was wrongfully convicted of treason due to misidentified handwriting analysis by Alphonse Bertillon. Bertillon, known for his anthropometric system, attempted to analyze Dreyfus’s handwriting, despite lacking expertise in forensic document examination.

The Dreyfus Affair became one of history’s most infamous miscarriages of justice, highlighting the dangers of flawed forensic analysis. The case later contributed to the refinement of forensic handwriting examination, emphasizing the need for scientific rigor and expert testimony in forensic investigations.

In 1895, Dr. Eduard Piotrowski published a groundbreaking study on bloodstain pattern recognition, laying the foundation for modern bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA). His research explored the behavior of blood spatters, helping forensic experts interpret crime scene evidence. Piotrowski’s work remains a cornerstone of forensic serology and crime scene reconstruction today.

In 1895, Wilhelm Konrad Röntgen (1845–1923) became the first person to observe X-rays, a breakthrough that transformed medicine and forensic investigations. X-ray technology allowed forensic experts to examine skeletal remains, detect hidden injuries, and analyze evidence without invasive procedures. Röntgen’s discovery became a critical tool in forensic pathology, making the invisible visible and advancing criminal investigations and autopsy techniques.

In 1896, Sir Edward Richard Henry (1850–1931) developed the prototype fingerprint classification system, which became the foundation for fingerprint identification in Europe and the United States. His system categorized fingerprints into arches, loops, and whorls, enabling efficient classification and retrieval for law enforcement.

Henry later published Classification and Uses of Finger Prints, solidifying fingerprint analysis as the primary method for criminal identification. His system remains the basis for modern fingerprint databases, including AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System).

In 1897, Herman Welcker (1822–1899) provided scientific evidence supporting fingerprint permanence by comparing his own fingerprints taken in 1856 and 1897, proving they remained unchanged over four decades.

His findings reinforced William Herschel’s earlier observations and strengthened the scientific credibility of fingerprint identification as a reliable and permanent method for criminal investigations, further establishing its role in forensic science.

In 1897, Paul Brouardel (1837–1906) published La Pendaison, la Strangulation, la Suffocation, la Submersion, a groundbreaking forensic study on strangulation victims. His work detailed key autopsy findings, including ligature marks, petechial hemorrhages, and airway obstructions, establishing scientific criteria for determining cause of death in hanging, strangulation, suffocation, and drowning cases.

Brouardel’s research became a critical reference in forensic pathology, shaping modern post-mortem examination techniques for asphyxial deaths.

In 1898, Paul Jeserich (1854–1927), a Berlin-based chemist, became the first to use a microscope for ballistic comparison. He captured photomicrographs of bullets, allowing for the individualization of firearm markings. Jeserich’s work laid the foundation for modern forensic ballistics, influencing how bullets and firearms are matched in criminal investigations today.

In 1898, Hans Gross, a pioneer in forensic science, published Criminal Psychology, exploring the mental processes of criminals and the psychological aspects of investigations. His work emphasized how psychology influences crime, evidence interpretation, and witness testimonies, making it a key contribution to forensic psychology and criminology.

In 1899, Sir Edward Richard Henry (1850–1931) devised a 10-digit fingerprint classification system, significantly improving law enforcement’s ability to catalog and retrieve fingerprint records. This system became the foundation for modern fingerprint databases, including AFIS (Automated Fingerprint Identification System), and remains widely used worldwide.