Exploring the Science and History of White Phosphorus in Modern Warfare
In the complex landscape of modern warfare, white phosphorus munitions have emerged as a subject that is both highly controversial and profoundly consequential. Their history is intricate, their applications multifaceted, and their implications far-reaching. This comprehensive article delves into the world of white phosphorus munitions, from the science behind their combustion to the historical timeline of their use and the ethical and legal debates that surround their deployment.
Understanding White Phosphorus
White phosphorus, an allotrope of phosphorus, is known for its extreme reactivity and pyrophoric properties, making it a valuable asset in military applications, including smoke generation, illumination, and incendiary effects. To truly understand its role in warfare, we must delve into the scientific intricacies of white phosphorus.
The Science of Phosphorus Combustion
The combustion of white phosphorus is a captivating chemical process. When it reacts with oxygen in the air, it undergoes a transformation into phosphorus pentoxide:
P4 + 5 O2 → P4O10
This unique chemical reaction results in the formation of phosphorus pentoxide, which exhibits hygroscopic properties, allowing it to absorb minute traces of moisture. This, in turn, leads to the creation of liquid droplets of phosphoric acid:
P4O10 + 6 H2O → 4 H3PO4
One of the most remarkable aspects of this chemical reaction is that the resulting smoke cloud contains approximately 68% atmospheric water, making it highly efficient. For every kilogram of white phosphorus used, it produces approximately 3.2 kilograms of smoke, a critical characteristic in military operations.
Over time, these liquid droplets continue to absorb water, growing in size and dilution until they reach equilibrium with local water vapor pressure. This property makes the smoke produced by burning white phosphorus effective at scattering visible light, and it eventually dissipates due to environmental factors like wind and convection.
Applications of White Phosphorus Munitions
White phosphorus munitions serve diverse military purposes, each playing a significant role in strategic warfare. Let’s delve into these applications:
Smoke Generation
One of the most common military uses of white phosphorus is smoke generation. When white phosphorus comes into contact with air, it vigorously reacts, creating a dense cloud of phosphorus pentoxide vapor. This property is indispensable for generating smoke screens, serving several crucial functions:
- Concealing the movement and positions of friendly forces making it challenging for the enemy to target them via infrared signatures.
- Obscuring shooting positions and critical strategic points on the battlefield provides a valuable defensive advantage.
Illumination
White phosphorus is pivotal in the creation of illumination munitions. These munitions offer a strong, sustained light source, typically used in nighttime operations. Their intense illumination is essential for gaining critical battlefield information, enabling troops to navigate and execute tactical movements effectively.
Incendiary Devices
White phosphorus’s most controversial application is as an incendiary device. When deployed for this purpose, it has the capability to ignite widespread fires upon impact. The incendiary nature of white phosphorus is especially alarming when used in populated areas, as it can ignite cloth, fuel, ammunition, and other combustibles, making it a potent and destructive weapon.
The Terrifying Impact
The use of phosphorous bombs in warfare exacts a devastating toll, leaving a profound impact that transcends the battlefield. This section examines the severe consequences of white phosphorus munitions.
Devastating Burns
Phosphorus bombs cause some of the most excruciating burns known to humanity. Burning at temperatures as high as 800°C (1,472°F), their incandescent particles can result in extensive partial- and full-thickness burns. Handling burning submunitions without protective equipment carries a high risk of injury. Moreover, phosphorus particles can be absorbed into the body through burned areas, potentially causing severe damage to the liver, heart, and kidneys, leading to unbearable pain and, in some cases, multiple organ failure.
Smoke Inhalation
Burning white phosphorus creates dense, white smoke, primarily composed of phosphorus pentoxide in aerosol form. In open areas, this smoke is generally harmless. However, in enclosed spaces, it can lead to asphyxiation and permanent respiratory damage. High concentrations of this smoke may also cause temporary irritation to the eyes, mucous membranes of the nose, and the respiratory tract.
Environmental Damage
The destruction caused by phosphorus bombs extends beyond human suffering. The intense fires they ignite can waste entire landscapes, leaving them scorched and barren. Extinguishing these fires is an arduous task, further contributing to environmental devastation.
Tracing the History of White Phosphorus Munitions
White phosphorus munitions have a complex and controversial history in military conflicts, shaped by their evolving role in warfare. Let’s explore their historical timeline:
Early Use
White phosphorus found its early use in the 19th century when Fenian (Irish nationalist) arsonists developed “Fenian fire.” This formulation involved a solution of white phosphorus in carbon disulfide, igniting upon exposure to air. This early use demonstrated the destructive potential of white phosphorus, setting the stage for its structured application in warfare.
World War I and Beyond
White phosphorus saw extensive use during World War I, with the British Army introducing factory-built white phosphorus grenades. American, Commonwealth, and Japanese forces also employed white phosphorus in various forms during this period. The Royal Air Force deployed white phosphorus bombs during the Iraqi revolt of 1920. The interwar years saw the U.S. Army training with white phosphorus in artillery shells and air bombardments.
World War II and Its Impact
In the early stages of World War II, concerns about a potential German invasion of Great Britain prompted the development of expedient incendiary weapons. Grenade No. 76, known as the Special Incendiary Phosphorus grenade, was introduced, available in two versions for different deployment methods. In the Normandy campaign, American forces made widespread use of white phosphorus in their 81mm mortar ammunition, employing it for point-detonating bursting smoke rounds. The U.S. Army and Marines used white phosphorus shells in 107mm mortars with great effect, disrupting German attacks and sowing chaos among enemy troops.
Later 20th Century Uses
White phosphorus munitions continued to find application in various conflicts throughout the latter part of the 20th century:
- In the Vietnam War, U.S. forces used white phosphorus grenades to destroy Viet Cong tunnel complexes due to their oxygen-consuming combustion.
- British soldiers employed white phosphorus grenades during the Falklands War to clear out Argentine positions.
Contemporary Uses and Controversies
White phosphorus munitions have been a subject of controversy in more recent conflicts.
- White phosphorus use by U.S. forces in Iraq, particularly during the battles in Fallujah, became a highly controversial issue. Reports emerged of white phosphorus being used as an incendiary weapon, with allegations suggesting it was used without precise knowledge of targets or potential damage.
- During the Second Battle of Fallujah in November 2004, the use of white phosphorus projectiles created an inextinguishable firewall, raising concerns about potential violations of international law, particularly the Chemical Weapons Convention.
- White phosphorus munitions have been a subject of controversy in more recent conflicts.
- Israel’s use of phosphorus shells in Lebanon during the 2006 conflict raised questions, with allegations of use on civilians.
- Similar controversies emerged in the Gaza War of 2008–2009 when the Israeli military initially denied using white phosphorus munitions.
- In Afghanistan in 2009, the use of white phosphorus resulted in burns on civilians wounded during clashes between U.S. forces and the Taliban.
- The 2016 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict saw accusations of white phosphorus munitions being used against Azerbaijani territory.
- Various parties reportedly used white phosphorus munitions in the Syrian Civil War.
- Accusations of white phosphorus weapon use by both sides during the Second Nagorno-Karabakh War further emphasized the controversial nature of these munitions in modern warfare.
- In more recent times, there have been reports of Israel using white phosphorous weapons on Palestinian civilians in the ongoing conflict that began on October 7th, 2023.
Legal Status and Regulation of White Phosphorus Bombs:
The regulation of white phosphorus munitions is a contentious issue in modern warfare, marked by ethical concerns and legal ambiguities. While they are not explicitly banned under international law, many experts assert that these weapons are illegal under customary international humanitarian law and various international laws and treaties. Let’s delve into the legal and regulatory landscape surrounding white phosphorus munitions.
The Definition and Legal Dispute
White phosphorus, when used in munitions, has prompted discussions and legal disputes due to its devastating effects and the circumstances in which it is deployed. The main legal documents and treaties relevant to this debate include the 1980 Protocol on Incendiary Weapons, the 1992 Chemical Weapons Convention, the 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings, among others.
Customary International Humanitarian Law
Many experts contend that the use of white phosphorus in populated areas or against civilians constitutes a violation of customary international humanitarian law. This body of law comprises rules and principles that are accepted as binding, even in the absence of specific treaty obligations. It emphasizes the importance of protecting civilians and distinguishing between combatants and non-combatants during armed conflicts. When white phosphorus causes indiscriminate harm and suffering to civilians, it is seen as violating these fundamental principles.
The 1980 Protocol on Incendiary Weapons
The 1980 Protocol III on Incendiary Weapons to the Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons focuses on restricting the use of incendiary weapons. While the protocol does not explicitly ban white phosphorus munitions, it imposes limitations on their use. For example, it prohibits the use of air-delivered incendiary weapons in areas where civilians are concentrated, but it does not address ground-launched incendiary weapons, creating an ambiguity in its application to white phosphorus.
The 1992 Chemical Weapons Convention
The 1992 Chemical Weapons Convention, primarily aimed at banning chemical weapons, also plays a role in the discussion. While white phosphorus is not classified as a chemical weapon, using it in a manner that intentionally harms humans could potentially be seen as a violation of this convention. The ambiguity arises from the distinction between the intended use of white phosphorus (e.g., to create smokescreens) and its potential consequences (e.g., burning civilians).
The 1997 International Convention for the Suppression of Terrorist Bombings
This convention addresses terrorist activities involving explosives and bombing. While not directly related to the use of white phosphorus in military operations, it highlights the international community’s concern regarding the use of explosives in ways that cause harm to civilians and infrastructure. White phosphorus’s potential for widespread destruction has raised questions about its compliance with this convention when used against populated areas.
Conflict and Conflicting Laws
One of the significant challenges in determining the legal status of white phosphorus munitions is the existence of conflicting rules and laws. The laws of armed conflict, often referred to as international humanitarian law, consist of numerous treaties and customary principles, each with its specific provisions and regulations. These legal texts occasionally overlap, contradict, or create gray areas that make it difficult to establish a clear legal framework for white phosphorus munitions.
Different Requirements Depending on Circumstances
Legal requirements for the use of white phosphorus munitions may vary depending on the specific circumstances and the applicable legal framework. For instance, using white phosphorus as a smokescreen in open areas might not raise significant legal concerns. However, deploying it in densely populated civilian areas could lead to violations of international humanitarian law.
Calls for Regulation
Numerous humanitarian organizations, including Human Rights Watch, advocate for including phosphorus warheads under the UN Convention on Certain Conventional Weapons. These calls for regulation underscore significant concerns about the use of white phosphorus in modern warfare.
Although there is no definitive ban on white phosphorus munitions, the international community recognizes that their use in or near populated areas or against civilians constitutes a war crime. This acknowledgment aligns with the principles of international humanitarian law, which mandate that military attacks must be selective, distinguishing between civilians and combatants and protecting civilian objects.
Violation of International Law
The deployment of phosphorous bombs in densely populated civilian areas violates international law. These indiscriminate weapons have caused catastrophic suffering, making them clear violations of the Geneva Conventions.
International Scrutiny
The international community has taken a firm stance against the use of phosphorous bombs in warfare. This scrutiny has led to calls for accountability and the establishment of investigative bodies to assess allegations of their use in war crimes.
Advocacy for Change
Non-governmental organizations and advocacy groups have been instrumental in raising awareness about the devastating impact of phosphorous bombs. Their efforts have pushed for a global ban on these weapons and highlighted the urgency of enforcing existing international laws.
In summary, white phosphorus munitions, despite their diverse military applications, have had a lasting and controversial impact on modern warfare. The devastating burns they cause, the environmental destruction they leave in their wake, and their alleged use in war crimes demand our attention. International efforts to address this issue and hold perpetrators accountable are crucial steps toward a safer and more humane world.
