Introduction
The polygraph, also known as the lie detector, is a device that has been used for decades to determine whether a person is telling the truth or lying. It has been the subject of controversy and debate, with some people questioning its accuracy and reliability. In this blog post, we will explore the history, science, and legal issues surrounding the polygraph.
Development
The polygraph was first developed in the early 1900s by a medical student named John Larson. He believed that changes in a person’s physiological responses could indicate when they were lying. The first polygraph instrument measured changes in blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiration. Over time, the polygraph has evolved to include additional measures such as sweat gland activity, movement, and voice analysis.
Here is a list of key milestones in the development of the modern polygraph:
- 1895: Italian physiologist Cesare Lombroso conducts early experiments measuring changes in blood pressure and pulse rate in response to lying.
- 1914: American psychologist William Moulton Marston develops an early version of the polygraph, which measures systolic blood pressure.
- 1921: John Larson, a medical student at the University of California, Berkeley, develops a more advanced polygraph that measures multiple physiological responses simultaneously (including blood pressure, pulse rate, and respiration).
- 1938: Leonarde Keeler improves on Larson’s design by adding a galvanometer to measure skin conductivity or sweat gland activity.
- 1940s and 1950s: Polygraphs become widely used in law enforcement and other contexts for detecting deception.
- 1988: The Employee Polygraph Protection Act is passed in the United States, restricting the use of polygraphs by employers.
- Late 20th century to present day: Advances in computer technology have led to improvements in data collection, analysis, and interpretation techniques for polygraphs. However, debates about their accuracy and reliability continue among experts in the field.
Overall, the development of the modern polygraph has been shaped by ongoing research into human physiology and psychology as well as changing social attitudes towards truthfulness and deception.
The Principle and Instrument
The principle behind the polygraph is that lying causes a physiological response, such as an increase in heart rate or sweating. The polygraph measures these responses while a person is answering a series of questions. The instrument typically consists of a blood pressure cuff or similar device to measure respiration and cardiovascular activity, electrodes attached to the fingertips to measure sweat gland activity, and a device to record the person’s responses.
The polygraph instrument typically consists of:
- Pneumograph – Measures respiration rate and depth by recording chest and abdominal movements. The pneumograph is typically attached to an elastic band that is placed around the examinee’s chest or abdomen.
- Cardio graph – Records heart activity through electrodes that are attached to the examinee’s chest. The cardio graph can detect changes in heart rate, blood pressure, and other cardiovascular responses.
- Galvanograph – Measures changes in skin conductivity or sweat gland activity by recording electrical resistance across two points on the skin. The galvanograph is usually attached to sensors that are placed on the fingers or palm of the examinee.
- Recording device – This device records all of the data collected from the other three components and displays it for analysis. Modern polygraphs often use computer software to record and analyze data, while older models may use a chart recorder that produces a paper chart with recordings of each physiological response over time. Overall, these components work together to measure various physiological responses that may indicate deception during a polygraph test.
Environmental Conditions for Polygraph Test
Environmental conditions can affect the accuracy of a polygraph test. For example, extreme temperatures, noise, or distractions can increase a person’s physiological responses, leading to false positives. Therefore, polygraph tests are usually conducted in a quiet, controlled environment to minimize external factors that could interfere with the results.
Here are the key factors that may be considered for creating an appropriate environment for a polygraph test:
- Temperature: The testing room should be kept at a comfortable temperature, usually between 68-72 degrees Fahrenheit (20-22 degrees Celsius), to avoid any discomfort or distraction for the examinee.
- Lighting: The lighting in the testing room should be adequate but not too bright, as excessive brightness can cause discomfort and affect physiological responses.
- Noise level: The testing environment should be quiet to minimize distractions and help the examinee focus on the questions being asked.
- Seating arrangement: The seating arrangement should be comfortable for the examinee, with appropriate back support and armrests if necessary.
- Privacy: Polygraph tests are typically conducted in private rooms to ensure confidentiality and minimize distractions from outside sources.
- Equipment calibration: Before conducting a polygraph test, it’s important to ensure that all equipment is properly calibrated and functioning correctly to obtain accurate readings of physiological responses.
Overall, these factors can help improve the reliability and accuracy of a polygraph test in detecting deception or truthfulness during questioning.
Preparation before polygraph:
Here are the key steps that polygraph examiners may take to prepare themselves:
- Training and certification: Polygraph examiners typically undergo specialized training and certification programs to learn how to administer tests, interpret results, and maintain ethical standards. This training may include coursework on physiology, psychology, and interviewing techniques.
- Familiarization with the case: Before conducting a polygraph test, the examiner should review all relevant case materials to gain an understanding of the issues being investigated. They may consult with other experts or practitioners in the field to gain additional insights into the case.
- Developing a list of questions: Based on their review of case materials, examiners will develop a list of questions that are specific to the case and tailored to the individual being tested. These questions may include both relevant and control questions designed to elicit physiological responses.
- Establishing rapport with the examinee: Building rapport with the examinee is important to help them feel comfortable during the testing process and reduce any anxiety or stress they may be experiencing. Examiners may use various techniques to establish rapport, such as active listening, empathy, and non-judgmental communication.
- Explaining the testing process: The examiner should explain the testing process in detail to ensure that the examinee understands what will be involved, including what types of questions will be asked and how physiological responses will be measured. This may involve showing the examinee the equipment that will be used and demonstrating how it works.
- Conducting a pre-test interview: Prior to administering the actual test, examiners often conduct a pre-test interview with examinees to gather additional information about their background, behavior patterns, or other factors that may affect their responses during questioning. This interview may also help the examiner establish rapport with the examinee.
- Maintaining objectivity: Examiners must remain objective throughout the testing process and avoid any behaviors or actions that could influence or bias results. This means avoiding leading questions, maintaining a neutral tone and demeanor, and focusing only on the information provided by the examinee and the physiological responses measured by the equipment.
Overall, these steps are designed to ensure that polygraph tests are conducted in a fair, ethical, and accurate manner, while minimizing any stress or discomfort experienced by the examinee.
Questioning Techniques
Polygraph examiners use specific questioning techniques to elicit responses from the person being tested. These techniques include asking control questions, relevant questions, and comparison questions.
Control questions are designed to elicit a physiological response from the person, regardless of whether they are lying or telling the truth. Relevant questions are focused on the specific issue being investigated, while comparison questions are designed to compare the person’s responses to relevant and control questions.
The goal of these techniques is to identify patterns of physiological responses associated with deception or truthfulness. Examining an individual’s reactions across different types of questioning formats can help determine whether they are being truthful or deceptive.
Polygraph examiners may use the following question techniques:
- Relevant/Irrelevant Test (RIT) – This technique involves asking questions that are both relevant and irrelevant to the issue under investigation. The purpose is to establish a baseline for the examinee’s physiological responses.
- Control Question Test (CQT) – The CQT is based on the premise that deceptive individuals will have stronger physiological reactions to control questions than to relevant questions. Control questions are designed to be emotionally arousing but unrelated to the issue under investigation.
- Guilty Knowledge Test (GKT) – In this technique, multiple-choice questions are used to ask about specific details of a crime or event, with one correct answer and several plausible but incorrect answers. The assumption is that only someone with knowledge of the crime would have a strong reaction to the correct answer.
- Directed Lie Technique (DLT) – The DLT involves asking an examinee to deliberately lie in response to specific questions. The purpose is to establish a baseline for their physiological responses when lying.
- Concealed Information Test (CIT) – This technique involves asking multiple-choice questions about details of a crime or event, with one correct answer and several incorrect answers. Physiological responses such as skin conductance or heart rate are measured in response to each option.
Analysis of Polygraph Charts
The results of a polygraph test are typically analyzed by a trained examiner. The examiner looks for patterns in the person’s physiological responses, such as significant increases in heart rate or sweating during relevant questions. The examiner then makes a determination about whether the person is telling the truth or lying based on these patterns.
Here are some key factors that examiners may consider when analyzing polygraphic charts:
- Baseline measurements: Before asking any relevant questions, examiners typically establish baseline measurements for an examinee’s physiological responses by asking a series of neutral or irrelevant questions. These baseline measurements are used as a reference point for comparison with responses to relevant questions.
- Comparison of responses: When analyzing charts, examiners compare an examinee’s physiological responses to relevant questions with their baseline measurements and other control questions (such as those designed to elicit emotional arousal). Significant differences in response patterns may indicate deception or truthfulness.
- Timing and duration: Examiners also look at the timing and duration of physiological responses, such as how quickly they occur after a question is asked and how long they last. Rapid or sustained changes in response patterns may be indicative of deception or heightened emotional arousal.
- Overall consistency: Examiners also consider the overall consistency of an examinee’s physiological responses across different types of questioning formats (such as RIT, CQT, GKT) to ensure that there are no inconsistencies or anomalies that could affect the accuracy of results.
- Examiner judgment: Finally, it’s important to note that interpretation of polygraphic charts involves some degree of subjective judgment on the part of the examiner, based on their training and experience in administering tests and interpreting results.
Overall, careful analysis and interpretation of polygraphic charts is essential for obtaining accurate results from a polygraph test while minimizing errors or false positives/negatives that could have serious consequences for individuals involved in criminal investigations or other contexts where truthfulness is at issue.
Legal Status and Issues
The use of polygraph tests in legal settings has been a subject of controversy. While polygraph results are not admissible as evidence in most courts, they are still used by law enforcement agencies and employers in some cases. Critics argue that the tests are not reliable and can be influenced by factors such as the examiner’s biases or the person’s physiological state. As a result, some states have passed laws regulating the use of polygraph tests in certain settings.
Here are some of the legal Issues of polygraph:
- Admissibility in court: Polygraph results are generally not admissible as evidence in court because they are considered unreliable and subjective. However, some jurisdictions may allow them to be used for limited purposes, such as plea bargaining or pretrial release decisions.
- Employee rights: In many countries, including the United States, employers are generally prohibited from requiring employees or job applicants to take a polygraph test as a condition of employment. Exceptions may exist for certain types of jobs, such as those involving national security or public safety.
- Privacy concerns: Polygraph tests can involve invasive monitoring of an individual’s physiological responses, which raises privacy concerns. Examinees have the right to refuse to take a polygraph test in most cases.
- False positives and false negatives: Polygraphs can produce both false positives (indicating deception when the examinee is truthful) and false negatives (failing to detect deception when it is present). This can lead to wrongful accusations or missed opportunities to uncover important information. These legal issues highlight some of the challenges associated with using polygraphs in criminal investigations and other contexts where truthfulness is at issue.
Conclusion
While the polygraph may not be a perfect tool for detecting lies, it remains an important part of certain investigations and employment screening processes. Understanding the science and principles behind the polygraph can help us make informed decisions about its use and limitations.
